Page 2: Covalent Bonds and Functional Groups

This section explains the fundamental concepts of covalent bonding and introduces various functional groups in organic chemistry.

Definition: A covalent bond involves sharing electron pairs between atoms to achieve stability.

Vocabulary:

• Monovalent: Forms one bond (e.g., hydrogen)
• Bivalent: Forms two bonds (e.g., oxygen)
• Trivalent: Forms three bonds (e.g., nitrogen)
• Tetravalent: Forms four bonds (e.g., carbon)

Highlight: The carbon skeleton consists of uninterrupted carbon atom chains, with the main chain being the longest sequence containing the functional group.

The page concludes with a comprehensive list of organic functional groups including alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, amines, ethers, carboxylic acids, and amides.

Page 4: Nomenclature Basics

This section details the fundamental rules for naming organic compounds, particularly focusing on alkanes and their derivatives.

Vocabulary:

• Prefix: Indicates the number of carbon atoms
• Radical: The functional group attached to the main chain

Example: Naming patterns for alkanes from 1-8 carbon atoms (methane through octane)

Highlight: Special prefixes are used to indicate multiple substituents (di-, tri-, tetra-)

Page 5: Alcohol Classification and Nomenclature

This page focuses specifically on alcohol nomenclature and classification systems.

Definition: Alcohols are classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary based on the carbon atom bearing the hydroxyl group.

Example:

• Primary alcohol: CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂OH (butan-1-ol)
• Secondary alcohol: CH₃-CHOH-CH₂-CH₃ (butan-2-ol)
• Tertiary alcohol: (CH₃)₃COH (2-methylpropan-2-ol)